Effective communication is the backbone of any successful organization. It ensures that information flows seamlessly across all levels – facilitating understanding, decision-making, and collaboration. Clear communication reduces ambiguity, minimizes conflicts, and promotes transparency.

Impact on Team Dynamics and Company Vision

Accountability:

When expectations, goals, and responsibilities are communicated clearly, each team member knows what is expected of them. Regular feedback and updates keep everyone answerable for their roles and actions. As well as clear all the doubts and facilitate fast and correct decision making.

Energy and Motivation:

Open communication boosts morale by giving employees a voice. When people feel heard and informed, they are more engaged, enthusiastic, and willing to contribute. Also, this promotes emotional bonding with the organization which is a very critical attribute for the maximum productivity and quality output.

Alignment with Vision:

Consistent communication about the organization’s mission, goals, and progress ensures that all teams are moving in the same direction. It fosters unity and shared purpose, which is vital for strategic execution. When employees have clear vision of the organization, they can also visualize their growth trajectory. This reduces the employee attrition rate. Apart from above, this help to develop strategic thinking among employees, which expedite the mission to achieve company’s vision.

Strategy to Foster an Effective Communication Environment

Below can be the initiatives we can pursue to build effective communication environment in the organization:

• Establish Clear Communication Channels be it is verbal, written or in presence. Define formal and informal channels for different types of communication.
• Promote a Two-Way Culture, in this encourage listening and feedback at all levels, which is very important. One side communication has no meaning.
• Train Managers and Leaders to equip them with skills like active listening, empathy, and clarity.
• Leverage of the technology that use collaboration tools like Slack, Teams, or Trello. Below is the summary of various tools:

• Ensure transparency by sharing company goals, updates, and challenges regularly.
• Celebrate Success and Acknowledge efforts of the team members. In this initiative we can use communication, rewards or certification to recognize and motivate.

Action Plan

Below is tentative action plan which can be rolled out to meet the objective “to develop the effective communication environment”.

Conclusion

Effective communication is not just a tool but a culture that drives accountability, energizes teams, and ensures alignment with organizational goals. With deliberate strategy and consistent action, organizations can create a communication-rich environment that fuels growth and success.

Thank for reading…

The post Importance of Effective Communication within an Organization appeared first on ChemEnggHelp.

What is a Cost Management Process?

In Project Management, cost management process includes estimating, budgeting and controlling of the project cost. The cost management process enables a project manager to forecast the expenses, which help to avoid budget overrun by applying required controls. Simultaneously, project manager needs cost management to report project budget status to the board members and stakeholders on regular basis.

Before starting a project, first we must estimate and take necessary approvals for the budgeted cost from relevant authorities. This activity is the part of project planning phase in project management process.        

Moreover, during project implementation, we document project cost and various learnings. This we do to keep actual project cost within budget. After completion of the project, estimated project cost and actual costs are compared and recorded. This document provides us the benchmark for future project cost estimation and control.

For cost management process, we require work breakdown structure (WBS) of project to start with cost estimation and budgeting process. Apart from WBS, we also need estimation of resources and project activity schedule. Let us discuss the elements of cost management process in following section. 

Cost Estimating

In planning phase of the project management, cost estimation is most important process. Before starting a project, you need to estimate the cost and get it approved from relevant authorities. Estimation of the project cost enables sponsors to get insight whether they should invest into a project or not.

So, to estimate project cost with accuracy we need, project scope statement, which clarifies what is in scope and out of scope. Other than this WBS (work break down structure), provides detailed activity list up to the lowest level of the project is required. The most direct method of project cost estimation is based on WBS. Here we are estimating the cost at lowest level and summing it all towards upside to the top. Cost estimates we express in terms of currency to facilitate comparison both within and across projects.

In starting phase of the project, cost estimates are less accurate, but as project progresses through the life cycle, accuracy of the project cost estimates increases. The project cost includes cost of labour, material, machine/equipment (like, reactor costing, heat exchangers costing, distillation column costing, etc.), services and other facilities. Apart from this other cost includes inflation, allowances, contingencies, interests, taxes & freights, etc.

Cost Budgeting

A project cost budget is the total projected costs which we need to complete a project over a scheduled duration. This we use to estimate how much cost of the project we will need for every phase of the project.

In project cost management process after cost estimates, we do cost budgeting exercise. For this purpose, we need project schedule, resource planning and list of possible risk during project as input. Based on budgeting we set project cost baseline, which is a cash out flow on weekly, monthly or yearly basis. This baseline we require to measure and monitor the cost performance of the project.

Cost Controlling

So, after cost budgeting we have project baseline, which we use to monitor and control the project cost. The process of cost control includes, monitoring of cost performance to identify and understand the variances. Also, project manager needs to ensure that all the appropriate changes are recorded and unwanted/unauthorized changes are prevented in the cost baseline. Moreover, project manager informs about the authorized changes to the relevant stakeholders. In simple words, by cost control a project manager put his/her efforts to bring expected costs within budget limits.

In cost control process as a project manager, we are looking for the reasons of both positive and negative variances. And, take appropriate action to keep project cost within limits.

Change Management

All the project in it’s life cycle can go through changes, which can be because of various reasons like technical, legal, economical, environmental, etc. To carryout these changes we require a Change Control Board (CCB), this board oversee the change process. And, this CCB includes representatives from all the concerned parties including users, operation, finance, suppliers, technical, etc.

The CCB (Change Control Board) reviews the meetings for change controls. Which determine whether change request is valid or not? Also go through the details to understand the technical & financial feasibility of the proposed change.

It is very important to understand that change control is a tool to keep the track & record of all changes in a project. Also, it is equally important to ensure the validity & authenticity of implemented change. Because every change means additional cost to the project.

Earned Value Management System (EVMS)

In project management, earned value management system or EVMS is a tool to measure the performance of a project. In any projects there are thousands of activities and their progress we measure against time and cost. We check whether that particular activity is running as per the schedule or not. Moreover, we check the cost variance (i.e., difference between actual coat v/s baseline cost).

EVMS has three key independent values, which we use to identify the performance and progress of the project. The various values are as below:

Planned Value (PV) – this is the budgeted cost of work scheduled or BCWS. The BCWS is the physical work which was planned to be completed within budgeted cost and duration.

Actual Cost (AC) – actual cost of work performed (ACWP). This is the total cost, which actually incurred in completing the actual work.

Earned Value (EV) or Budgeted Cost of Work Performed (BCWP) – This is the sum of budgeted costs for the physical work that actually completed. Which is estimated based on % completion of scheduled work.

Below figure can help us to understand earned value analysis:

Example for EVMS

Let us consider below example to understand the EVMS tool in project management. Below are the details of a distillation column installation project for solvent recovery. This project is planned to complete in 8 months and Rs. 350 lacs. Let us assume we are reviewing this project in 5^th month.

In above table we can see in 5^th month there is 70% completion of budgeted work. Therefore, BCWP will be 275*70/100 = Rs. 192.5 lacs. So, various insights for this project will be as below,

Scheduled Variance (SV) = BCWP – BCWS = 192.5 – 275 = -82.5 lacs

Cost Variance (CV) = BCWP – ACWP = 192.5 – 305 = -112.5 lacs

% efficiency = BCWP*100/ACWP = 192.5*100/305 = 63.1%

Therefore, we find that this project actually completed 63.1% against 70% budgeted completion. So running by (70-63.1)*100/70 = 9.86% behind the schedule. Also, there is cost overrun by 112.5 lacs. Other valuable information, which we can estimate using EVMS are in below section.

As we saw above this project is running behind the schedule, so expected completion time based on current performance will be = Planned Time/(BCWP/BCWS) = 8/(192.5/275) = 11.4 months.

Forecasted expected actual cost (EAC) of the project (with current performance),

EAC = BAC/efficiency = 350/0.631 = 554.7 lacs

Forecasted expected cost of the project (with 55% performance from 6^th month),

EAC = ACWP + ((BAC – BCWP)/efficiency) = 300 + ((350 – 192.5)/0.55) = 586.4 lacs

Forecasted expected cost of the project (with 100% performance from 6^th month),

EAC = ACWP + ((BAC – BCWP)/efficiency) = 300 + ((350 – 192.5)/1.0) = 457.5 lacs

So, this way we can estimate various indicators and get insight about project.

Conclusion

In project management process, cost management is very important area, as we discussed in this article. First, we need to estimate the cost and then prepare the budget for the project. This budget tells us what and when is required to complete the scheduled activities. Once budget is ready, we require to monitor and control the project progress with respect to the project baseline. This control is very crucial to complete the project within budgeted time and cost as well. This we saw in EVMS example also, if there is delay in project it will increase the project completion cost also. Thanks for reading..

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First of all, let us understand different types of dependency relationships of tasks in a project management schedule.

Tasks Dependencies in Project Management

There are below four types of task dependency relationships. In simple words, dependencies are the relationships of predecessor activities to the successor activities. These relationships tell us in a logical way, how different tasks we should take up on it.

Finish to Start – This is the most common dependency relationship. In these types of activities previous task or predecessor must finish before next task or successor can start. Example for this can be completion of civil foundation before equipment erection.

Start to Start – here predecessor task must start before the successor task can start. We can understand this by the example of equipment erection and piping work. It means to start piping work, first you should start equipment erection.

Finish to Finish – this is the type where predecessor activities must finish before successor activities finish. For this, example can be piping work must finish before instrumentation activities finish.

Start to Finish – in this dependency where predecessor task must start before successor task can finish. Example can like structure work must start before painting work finish. In project scheduling methods, this relationship is least common.

During preparing project schedule we need to understand above dependency relationships between various tasks clearly.

Now in next section, let us go through main project scheduling techniques which are commonly used.

Project Scheduling Techniques

As we know project schedule is the list of milestones and all the activities within a project from start to finish. Also, this schedule is based on the project work breakdown structure which provides duration and resource requirement for each project activity. Using project scheduling we can list down the activities in a logical and sequential manner to achieve best possible early finish date to complete project work. In other words, we can estimate the duration of complete project scope of work. Moreover, if you have a proper project schedule ready, then time management and adjustments with the scope of work of a project is easily possible. So, let us discuss commonly used project scheduling tools and techniques as below:

Critical Path Method (CPM)

Each project has a critical path, which is the total duration of start to finish interlinked activities. However, in a project schedule there can be many paths from start to finish date of a project. But, when we talk about Critical Path, it is the longest path among all the possible other paths to complete a project work. Also, a critical path has the least float available. Below are some definitions, which we use in project schedule:

Float – Is the amount of time duration up to that you may delay an activity from it’s early start without delaying the project finish date. Also, when a float is sharable among other activities it is known as Total Float.

Critical Activity – All the activities which lies in critical path, we call them critical activities.

It is very important to understand, you can not delay the activities of critical path, otherwise your project will not finish on time. Also, the critical path in a project is dynamic in nature and it is not fixed.

Example for CPM

Let us take a hypothetical example to understand the CPM technique. For this below is a network diagram which we can draw.

In above project network diagram, we can see there are three paths between start to finish date of the project. Which we can write as below:

1> Path -1: Start – A – C – F – Finish = 3 + 7 + 8 = 18 days

2> Path -2: Start – B – D – F – Finish = 5 + 1 + 8 = 14 days

3> Path -3: Start – B – E – G – Finish = 5 + 7 + 5 = 17 days

Therefore, in case of above project Path -1 is the critical path, since it has longest duration required for completion (which is 18 days). So, as a project manager you should focus on the activities of Path -1 very critically. You should understand completing this project before 18 days is not possible for given resources. Other two paths, Path -2 & Path -3 have slack or float of 4 days and 1 day respectively. It means if you delay Path -2 activity by <4 day it will not affect the total project completion duration. Similarly, for Path -3 you have 1 day slack time.

Also, you need to understand in a project, critical path is dynamic in nature. It means, if initially one path is critical, it is possible in later stage of project another path can be a critical path. Let us consider the above example, if because of some unforeseen reason in Path -2, activity ‘D’ duration changes from 1 day to 7 days, the total duration will become 20 days. So, now Path -2 is the longest and will be the critical path for this project.

Program Evaluation & Review Technique (PERT)

There are situations, when many uncertainties are present in your project, then critical path method technique is not so handy. In those circumstances, we can use PERT, which is also similar to CPM. However, this technique is based on three time estimates to determine the duration of an activity. These three-time estimates are Optimistic, Pessimistic and Most Likely. So, we can estimate the duration of an activity as below:

Estimated Duration = (Optimistic + 4*Most Likely + Pessimistic)/6

Main differences found between PERT and CPM techniques are, PERT is probabilistic whereas CPM is deterministic. In CPM, estimates of activity duration are based on historical data, while in PERT, estimates are uncertain (i.e., estimated based on above relationship). In PERT we talk of ranges of duration and the probability that activity duration will fall into that range. While, the CPM concentrates on Time/Cost trade off, high-cost low time required or vice versa.

Moreover, other techniques which we can find are Resource Constrained Project Scheduling Problem (RCPSP) Model, Search based techniques, Event Based Scheduler (EBS), etc.

Resource Planning and Allocating

In a project schedule when we assign a duration it depends on physical resources such as man, machine, material and money. Also, this time duration depends on quantities of each resource will be used to complete the project activities. As a project manager, you need to assess in advance and allocate the various resources to the activities coming in line as per the project schedule. This is very critical, to ensure smooth execution of the project.

Moreover, as a project manager you need to consider both qualitative and quantitative aspects of the human resource. So, during estimating project completion duration you need to be very realistic, otherwise there can be many unpleasant outcomes in future.

Therefore, resource management is very critical for the timely completion of your project. So, typically in resource management we cover below things:

• Resource allocation and it’s impact one completion time and project cost.
• Resource levelling and smoothing, to reduce the load and stress on resources, especially on the human resource.

 For resource management commonly we use two techniques, which are Resource Histogram and S-Curves.

Resource Histogram – Using this technique, we can understand and get insight on the resource allocation status of the project. Moreover, we can know how resources are impacting the project progress. We can develop resource histogram, from quantity of resource allocation to various activities during the project. And, based on criticality of the activities appropriate decisions we can take to mobilise the resources from one activity to another.

S-Curve – We can prepare S-Curve for planned activity schedule and can compare it with actual S-Curve to access the project progress performance. S-Curve is the plot between cumulative total of a resource with respect to the project time line.

Gantt Chart

As a project manager we all need to prepare a Gantt Chart or a project activity bar chart for our project. In project management, Gantt chart is a tool which we use in scheduling techniques and shows a project plan. In this we see there are two parts, left side there are list of tasks or activities. While, other side includes timeline with schedule bars that shows work duration. In Gantt chart there can be lots of other information like, start and end dates, dependency relationships among activities, milestones, resources, baseline, actual start & finish dates, etc.

Below is the Gantt chart for above mentioned example. This I have prepared on Microsoft Project Scheduler; in this we can see project calendar has 5 days working week. However, we can change this, by selection & customizing different calendar.

We use Gantt charts for planning and scheduling in project management. Using it we can monitor and control the project progress. Apart from this you can take timely decision for resource requirements, so that tasks complete on scheduled date. Also, you can manage dependency relationships between activities very easily.

Conclusion

Finally, as a project manager we need various resources (man, machine, money, material) to carry out and complete our projects. Moreover, any organization has fixed resources and as a project manager you are responsible to allocate them after reviewing meticulously. So that, project work can be finished within budgeted time and cost.

So, to meet above objectives, we tried to understand various project scheduling tools & techniques in this article. Which includes CPM, PERT, Gantt Chart and Resource Planning. We should use project scheduling software to develop our project schedules, which are easy to use. I have used Microsoft Project during my work experience and found it very useful. Using this project scheduling software, we can easily monitor and control our project progress, resource requirement and overall project cost.

Thanks for reading.

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In result, WBS method enable a project manager to assign the work packages to different teams simultaneously. Moreover, he or she can manage & lead the team in an easier and better productive way.   

What is a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)?

This is a technique, which breaks down the big and complex project work into the small and manageable tasks. And, these tasks can be executed by the project team to complete the project work timely and successfully. So, what a WBS does? This we can understand as below:

• It organizes and define the total scope of work and gives clarity of total quantum of the work, which you need to take as a project manager to finish the project.
• Project’s WBS divides and subdivides the total project work from start to finish into smaller, easily manageable and assignable tasks.
• In WBS every descending level represents smaller but clear and detailed information of the work. And, the last level of WBS we know as a “Work Package”.
• A work package is most important project deliverable for a Project Manager. As, he or she can schedule, cost estimate, monitor and control it.   

As we know, to process a work package, we need resources and time. And various types of resources are Man, Machine, Money, Material & Methods. So, once we are through with detailed work breakdown structure, we can estimate the resources and time requirements accurately for our project. This information is very important for all the stakeholders.

Utility of a Work Breakdown Structure

Once WBS of a project is ready, project manager gets in depth insight of the total work from start to finish. Now project manager can prepare a proper strategy and define an approach for the project work, using project scheduling techniques. He can work upon project implementation tactics including more accurate project cost estimation. Moreover, he can estimate implementation time for the project work more precisely.

Project manager can use WBS for resource estimating & planning also. Like when and how many resources are required, like civil contractors, mechanical fabricators, painters, instrumentation and electrical technicians. He can plan material delivery and service requirement from vendors accordingly.

Apart from this, in case of any specific and costly resources are required, can be planned accurately and, in a cost, effective manner.

Example of a WBS

Let us consider an example of a project for Waste Heat Boiler installation. Below is the simple work breakdown structure to understand the concept. Here we have divided complete project in three major groups, which are Engineering, Procurement & Construction. This we can see in below WBS.

Subsequently, in lower level of division we can list down into small, manageable and assignable tasks. This you can see in each group as we have done. For example, in Engineering group we have divided work into PFD, MB & HB of the system. This work package is clear-cut, for which we can estimate required resource, cost and time easily, for this estimated time is 4 days. This task you can assign to some competitive process engineer and as a project manager you can manage & control this activity easily. Similarly, we can work out for all the groups and levels.

To complete any work package, we need resources from Man, Machine, Material, Money or Methods. To process some work package, we require only single resource type, while for other we may need multiple type of resources. Once we have information about time required and type and quantity of resource requirement to process a work package, cost estimation is easy and more accurate.

However, above work breakdown structure template is simple. You can expand it to simplest level to get the details of type and quantity of resource required. As I have shown in construction group, where we require multiple types of resources.

Now in subsequent section we will see how can we use this WBS to develop other important deliverables in project management.

Cost Control Cube (CCC)

This is a concept in project management which was developed for monitoring and controlling the project costs. This cost control cube is developed using three breakdown structures as below:

• Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) – As we discussed in previous sections.
• Organization Breakdown Structure (OBS) – This is a model of the organization of project management team in a hierarchical way. This model specifies which team member will be responsible for the particular part of the project. The purpose of OBS is for planning and controlling of the involved people or employees.
• Cost Breakdown Structure (CBS) – This is the level wise breakdown of project into cost elements. To prepare CBS we require WBS first and we estimate the cost at each level based on the “work package”. This you can see in above work breakdown structure sample template also.

Above is the pictorial representation of a Cost Control Cube (CCC) for your reference.

Conclusion

We can see developing work breakdown structure (WBS) for our project is a very important deliverable. This is the basic and important document for many other documents, which includes organization breakdown structure (OBS) and cost breakdown structure (CBS).

After preparing all three breakdown structures, we can use these to develop cost control cube (CCC). We can use cost control cube to monitor, control and forecast the cost as per project deliverable from WBS and team member involved using OBS.

Thanks for reading.

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So, when we think about a new plant project or a new machine/equipment with latest technology, one immediate question arises in our mind. Which asks “Whether it is profitable or not? To get answer of this question, above mentioned techniques are very useful. Each technique evaluates the project from a different angle and provides a different insight. Let us understand these techniques in brief. This is a very important exercise we need to do at the initial phase of project management.

Payback Period

The payback period of any project investment is the time which it takes to equalize the cost to the benefits/profits. In other words, we can say it is the time taken by a project to reach its break-even point. Whether a management will approve a project of not it is directly connected with payback period. If payback period for your project is shorter then it is more attractive investments. So, to estimate payback period for a project you can use below equation:

PBP = Total Project Cost/Net Profit from the Project

PBP or payback period we measure in months or year.

Net Present Value (NPV)

For an investment project, Net Present Value (NPV) is the future net cash flows from it. This is one of the popular ways to evaluate our investment. Therefore, it is a common term in the mind of any experienced business person. So, among the available options, the alternative which has highest NPV is the best option. The one difference between PBP and NPV is this, we measure PBP in terms of time (i.e., months or years), while NPV we calculate in terms of currency.

To estimate the net present value (NPV) for your project, you can use below relationship:

NPV = (Total Cash Flow) x (DCF) – Investment

In above equation there are two terms Total Cash Flow and DCF, let us understand them as below:

Total Cash Flow

You can estimate Total Cash Flow using below equation. In other words, this is the answer of a question, “How much cash you have in your hand?” at that point of time.    

Total Cash Flow = Cash Inflow – Cash Outflow

For a business Cash Inflow should be greater than Cash Outflow, otherwise that cannot be a profitable business. So, cash inflow includes all the activities and avenues which bring money into the business, while cash outflow takes away money from the business. The examples for these two terms are as below:

Cash inflow to a business includes customer payments from sales, earning from investments, financing from bankers and shareholders, asset liquidation, etc.

Cash outflow from a business includes operating cost (i.e., Raw Material & Utility Cost), payments of suppliers & employees, payment of loan interest & taxes, new plant projects and acquisitions, debt payment, stokes buyback, insurance premium payment, etc.

Discount Factor (DCF)

DCF for a project is a decimal number, which you multiply by estimated future cash flow value to discount it back to its present value. This factor increases over time (meaning the decimal value gets smaller) as the effect of compounding the discount rate builds over time. You can estimate DCF using below equation:

Discount Factor (DCF) = 1 / (1 x (1 + Discount Rate) ^ Period Number)

Here, in this context of DCF analysis, the discount rate refers to the interest rate used to determine the present value. Otherwise, you can get this value from the finance department of your company.

Average Rate of Return (ARR)

The ARR, Average Rate of Return and Accounting Rate of Return are same terms. We can calculate the ARR by adding all the expected cash flows and dividing by the total number of years. In other words, Average Rate of Return (ARR) is the average cash flow generated over the life of a project investment. In ARR calculation we consider simple cash flow and do not use DCF or Discount Factor. So, to calculate ARR for a project investment you can use below formula:

ARR (Average Rate of Return) = (Total Cash Flow )/(no. of years of investment) 

ARR = Average Annual Profit/Initial Investment

Here,     Total Cash Flow = Cash Inflow – Cash Outflow

              Average Annual Profit = Total Profit over Project Investment Life/Nos. of Years

Please note, ARR doesn’t take into account the time value of the money. As we know the worth of cash flows in future is lower than present worth.

Return on Investment (ROI)

We use ROI method to estimate the profitability of an investment project. You can estimate ROI using below relationship:

Return on Investment (ROI) = (Average Rate of Return)*100/Investment

For an investor, ROI is a simple financial matrix by using this he or she can decide whether to go for particular investment project or not. This clearly tells us the how your existing investment is performing till date.  So, using an ROI formula, you can separate low-performing investments from high-performing investments. This way ROI enable us to optimize our investment portfolio to make best possible profit out of it. 

Return On Capital Employed (ROEC)

This financial matrix is one of the best profitability ratio, which investors commonly use to get insight whether to investing in a running company is beneficial or not. This measures how efficiently a company is using its capital to generate profits. The formula for computing ROCE is as follows:

ROCE = EBIT/Capital Employed

Here,     Capital Employed = Total Assets – Current Liabilities

              EBIT (Earnings Before Interest and Taxes) = Net Income + Interest + Taxes

              Or, EBIT = EBITDA – Depreciation and Amortization Expense

Current Liabilities are financial obligations of a business entity that are due and payable within a year.

Example to Understand Project Selection Methods

Let us consider below simple example where we have two investment options to go for putting a manufacturing plant. In Option-1 we can produce Chemical-A and in Option-2 we can produce Chemical-B. So, we will use above mentioned investment appraisal methods to find out the best alternative investment for our case.

Option-1:

Investment required: Rs. 150 Cr.

Revenue (Cash Inflow) & Expenses (Cash Outflow) for 5 years are as in below able:

Option-2:

Investment required: Rs. 200 Cr.

Revenue (Cash Inflow) & Expenses (Cash Outflow) for 5 years are as in below able:

Investment Appraisal

Below are the various project investment appraisal methods for the selection of best option:

For Pay Back Period calculation,

Total Cash Outflow = Initial Investment + Total Expenses

And, Total Cash Inflow = Total Revenue

Conclusion

Finally, in this article we discussed various project selection methods. Also, we worked out an example to understand various investment appraisal techniques. In above example we found however using Pay Back Period Method Option-1 is preferable. But, remaining three methods, gave insight to go for Option-2. Moreover, we require these financial matrix to mention in our Project Charter also.

Also, we discussed about ROCE (return on capital employed), we use this financial matrix to evaluate a running business. Using this technique, we can get insight about running business financial health, moreover can take appropriate investment decision.

I hope this article will help you to do quick calculation for selecting your best investment option among various available alternatives.

Thank you..

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What is a Project Charter?

So, in simple words we can say a Project Charter is a written document and which is an agreement between management and project team, about the project scope of work and goal. This project can be a new plant project, existing plant de-bottlenecking, process improvement initiative, plant maintenance work, new product development or plant digital transformation campaign, etc. Below are the objectives of any project charter, whether it is a big or small project.

• This clarifies clearly what and by when is expected from the project team. Describes clear-cut roles and responsibilities to avoid any confusions. 
• Project charter keeps the team focused as everything is clearly written and not a verbal statement.
• In an organization there can be many projects and various teams at any point of time. So, project charter helps the various teams aligned with organizational priorities. Which can be of their strategic importance also.

Various Sections of a Typical Project Charter

Let us take a sample project charter as below for our discussion. Now we will discuss each section of this charter one by one.

Title Section

In this we can mention the name of project, for example like “Project Charter for Reducing Steam Norm”. We can mention various other details like, location of the project, name of the business unit and project number for documentation purpose.

Project Description & Scope

This section we use to elaborate the project details which includes the name of your project and other details. Some of examples can be like, “New Plant Project for 100 TPD Distillery”, “Steam Norm Reduction Project for Solvent Recovery Column”, “ERP Implementation Project”, etc. In other words, here we are writing the name of our project which will clearly tells us that this project charter is for which project. And also, we explain scope of work clearly, which refers to the boundaries of the project.

Project scope outlines the area of team’s activity. You should answer to write down the project scope effectively:

• What are the boundaries of the process we are going to improve?
• List of key process which team will focus upon?
• List of resources available and required?
• Various constraints under which team will work?
• Expected time commitment of team members?

Business Case

Here we describe the strategic reasons to take up this project. You need to explain why this project is important strategically for the organization. Business case tell us about the product or service quality, cost or delivery with financial justification.

So, you should answer below questions in the project charter when you are writing a business case for your project:

• Why is this project worth doing for your organization?
• Why organization should take up this project now?
• What are the possible consequences, if your organization is not going for this project?
• How this project strategically fits for business goals?  

For your understanding we can write a business case for an example of, “Steam Norm Reduction for Solvent Recovery Column” as below:

“There is a stiff competition in the market. Customers are looking for good quality product at lower price.

This we can achieve by implementing out of the box improvements to our processes. As steam is the major contributor in variable cost of the product. Therefore, a reduction in steam consumption norm in solvent recovery plant will bring down the utility norm and subsequently reduce the manufacturing cost of the product. This variable cost reduction will enable the business to be more cost competitive in current market scenario. Also, organization can acquire larger market share.”

Please note here we have not mentioned any numbers, business case only explains qualitative strategic reasoning.

Problem Statement 

A problem statement tells us about the current business scenario, what is wrong with the business. Moreover, what are the opportunity losses in term of the market share. We describe for how long we are facing this problem and telling actual losses incurred till date. In other words, we are explaining here gravity of the problem and answering the question, “How big this problem is?”.

This section will explain the issue that team wants to improve, like capacity enhancement, variable cost reduction, batch cycle time reduction, etc. You should make a note, in problem statement our focus is on problem only and we are not concluding anything here.

So, we can write a problem statement for above example, which we considered in business case example:

“In solvent recovery plant after analysing last 12 months data we found average steam consumption norm is very high at 3.55 MT/MT. While benchmarking norm is 2.50 MT/MT, therefore @ 20000TPA production capacity and @1600 Rs/Ton steam cost, organization incurred loss of (1.05*20000*1600) around Rs. 336.0 lacs in last 12 months.”

So, seeing business case as a business head can decide whether he will sponsor or approve the project or not. Making an impactful business case will help you to get approval for your project quickly.

Goal Statement  

Next section of your project section is Goal Statement. Here we mention what is the target value or performance we are trying to achieve in present business scenario. This can be like, plant capacity enhancement, raw material and utility norm reduction, reduction in poor quality, on time delivery service improvement, etc. The project team creates and agrees on the goal statement. In goal statement we specifically mention, from where to where we want to improve or change the value. Also, we mention what will be the time frame for project completion, including project start and end dates.

For our example, we can write goal statement as below:

“Reducing the steam consumption norm in solvent recovery plant from 3.55 MT/MT to 2.50 MT/MT by 30^th Jan, 2022. Implementation of this project will bring around Rs. 336.0 Lakhs savings annually.”   

When we talk about problem and goal statement it should be SMART, which we can elaborate as below:

S – Specific (it should be specific and not a generalized statement)

M – Measurable (we should be able to measure the goal, so that we can compare it before & after)

A – Attainable (our goal should be realistic, which we can achieve)

R – Relevant (goal should be aligned with business strategy, otherwise project is a wastage of company’s valuable resources)

T – Time Bound (we can not take up any project for endlessly, it must be finished within agreed time period. For long time projects we should break the goal in small – small milestones to keep track of our project)

So, you can use above guidelines for setting up your project goal.

Project Milestones

We need this to track the project progress and get commitment from team on the timelines. In project charter team agree upon major milestones start and end dates. However, afterwards project manager prepares a detailed activity schedule to achieve each project milestone. Generally, in our project charter we mention below five milestones. However, you can customize them as per your project requirements.

Initiating – Define the project goal, scope, time, cost and team members with clear cut roles and responsibilities. In this phase actually we are setting the project’s baseline for time, cost and quality.

Planning – Identify best possible plan for activities and resources (including Man, Machine and Materials) among available options. This you need to achieve the objective or goal of your project.

Execute – This phase includes integration activities of a project manager in which he interacts among team members to implement the project plan.

Commissioning – After mechanical completion in this phase we take up the activities which are related to run the process to achieve envisaged results. In this we perform first pre-commissioning activities which includes running the plant on air and water. During pre-commissioning we are ensure no leakage in system, control loop trials, pump & fans trials, system pressure testing, safety system test, etc. Subsequently, we take up the commissioning activities and run the plant with actual fluid and process parameters. We demonstrate the plant performance and handover the plant to production team.

Closing – This is the last phase of any project and project manager get the acceptance from stakeholders regarding the product or services. Here project manager submits a closing report including standard operating procedures, user manuals, performance certificates, training, etc.

Financial Details

This section is to show the financial feasibility of your project. Here you provide the estimated CAPEX value of the project and also mention net benefit/profit from this project. Based on this we can estimate payback period and ROI, which is information of interest to our project sponsors. For the low payback project, we will get approval immediately from the management.     

Project Team Details

In a project charter, this section is very important, an excellent team can make your project successful. While, poor team combination can derail your project. So, depending on the type of your project you should choose the team members intelligently. When we take up a project, we will find three types of people in our organization (1) Supporters, (2) Opposers (3) Neutral. So, during making our team we should see how can we handle the “Opposers”, as they are the people who will always create hurdles in your project. Moreover, it is very good strategy to take the buy-in of “Neutral” people also.

In Project Team every team member should feel this project belongs to them and they are committed for the success of the project. Moreover, during formation of team, competencies of team members must be kept on top priority and biasness should be avoided. On project charter provide the name of each team member with their clear roles and responsibilities. And, take the sign-off form each team member as a token of acceptancy for all the information written in project charter.

In remarks section you can provide miscellaneous information which are important for the project.

Conclusion

Finally, we have gone through a typical project charter. Additionally, you can add detail documents for supporting the information written on project charter. These documents can be like, conceptual scheme showing present and proposed process. Details of tentative mass and energy balance for the scheme. You can attach the details of various effluent generation with quantity. Apart from this you should provide an annexure for the project cost break up and benefit/profit estimation with payback calculation. You can also provide a Level-1 project activity schedule with your project charter.

I am sure this article will give you sufficient information and guidance to prepare a good project charter. So, onwards when you start a new project prepare a project charter and get it signed-off from all the team members/stakeholders. This will make your life easy during entire project life cycle.

Thanks for reading….

The post How to Prepare a Project Charter? appeared first on ChemEnggHelp.

We can see in all above projects there are large number of activities involved from start to finish. Simultaneously, cross functional team members are also there. So, for timely completion of our project we need effective management of these activities. Moreover, efficient coordination among all stakeholders is very critical. Therefore, for a chemical engineer it is very necessary to understand the project management fundamentals to handle any project successfully.

This is my first article in the series of “Understanding of Project Management Fundamentals”. And, in subsequent articles we will go through in details.

What is a Project?

So, let us understand first what is a project. We can define a project is a series of activities which are temporary and we perform these activities to create a unique product or service. Hence, we can say,

• Each project has a certain time bound goal.
• Has numbers of activities which we need to complete timely (i.e., has start and finish date). For this we use Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) method to get insight in quantum of the project work.
• Require resources (Man, Machine and Material) to carryout different activities.
• These activities are temporary, which are not require after project completion.
• Each project has a unique output which can be a product such as a manufacturing plant, product, school building, etc. Project for services can be like ERP system implementation, digital transformation of plants, plant shutdown activities, etc.

We can see project is a process, where a series of actions takes place to bring about desired results. So, we can divide whole project activities in five different process groups or phases as below:

• Initiating
• Planning
• Executing
• Monitoring & Controlling
• Closing

In subsequent section we will discuss about these process groups in detail.

Difference between Project v/s Operation

Now many times we are confused between project and operation. You should be clear in your mind operation is different than project. Below are the points which will clarify your doubts:

• A project has its unique charter, organization and specific goal. While, in operation you have a permanent charter or SOP (standard operating procedure) and fixed goals (like to meet daily production, consumption norms).
• Every project after completion delivers a unique product or services. While, operations are meant to deliver same thing regularly and repetitively.
• In projects we can see team members are from diverse fields and specialization like chemical, civil, architect, mechanical, electrical, instruments, painter, welder, project manager, safety person, etc. On other side in operations, we have more homogeneous teams where you require less expertise. Such as plant operation people, maintenance technicians, etc.
• A project is time bound activity and has a start and end date. While, operation is an ongoing process, which stops only during maintenance and breakdown events.

Now, we have understood about project and also the difference between project and operation. Let us move to understand about managing the project.

Project Management and Manager

Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities. This is required to meet the stakeholders needs and expectations from that project. These stakeholders can be investors, business head, plant head, customer, supplier, community, local government, environment bodies, etc. And the person who is responsible for managing a project is known as Project Manager.

So as a project manager you need to manage the five-process groups or phases activities as we discussed above. During this whole process you need to focus and integrate the project scope, time duration, project cost, product or service quality, avoidance of any risk, procurement, resource management areas. A project manager use communication as a mean to integrate all the project information.

Therefore, to manage a project systematically as project manager need to do below things:

Project Phases

Initiating – Define the project goal, scope, time, cost and team members with clear cut roles and responsibilities. In this phase actually we are setting the project’s baseline for time, cost and quality. For this purpose we prepare project charter, which includes all these information. It is always better to get signed-off the project charter from all the stakeholders before starting any project.

Planning – Identify best possible plan for activities and resources (including Man, Machine and Materials) among available options. This you need to achieve the objective or goal of your project.

Execute – This phase includes integration activities of a project manager in which he interacts among team members to implement the project plan.

Controlling – This is the regular activity which a project manager performs to measure and monitor the progress of his project. For this purpose, he uses variances for time, cost and quality of work from the set baseline. If progress is deviating from plan, then he takes corrective actions to meet the particular project phase and overall project goal.

Closing – This is the last phase of any project and project manager get the acceptance from stakeholders regarding the product or services. Here project manager submits a closing report including standard operating procedures, user manuals, performance certificates, training, etc.

Below figure is to show you the interaction and flow of information between process groups during project life cycle. The direction of arrows here represents the flow of information.

As a project manager, you are supposed to keep all stakeholders as happy as possible. There may be parties having conflicting interests also. So, to achieve this expectation you need to control the project and for controlling you require measurable parameters having planned limits or baseline parameters.

As we discussed above what is a project management and how a project manager control and manage a project. Simultaneously, as a project manager you must keep in mind common pitfalls which can lead your project to failure.

Common Hurdles in a Project

As we know, nothing is ideal in this world and we cannot assume a smooth road map for our project also. So, it is very critical to understand the possible pitfalls in our project process as follows:

• Many times, we take up a project without a clear goal or objective. This makes our plan vague and spread confusion among team members. Which will certainly fail our project.
• For smooth project progress senior management support is very important. Because you are dependent on them for providing financial support and policy decisions making. Any misalignment in this can stall or altogether force to drop the project.
• As a project manager, if you are not an effective and efficient communicator you will face many problems because of poor coordination. To integrate team members, activities, stakeholders, cost, quality and risk as a project manager communicate timely and clearly to the project team. Therefore, as project manager you should have good communication skills in all form of communication such as verbal, non-verbal and written.
• Sometimes, you start a project and in between business priorities changes. This will lead to drop the project altogether and retrofitting may be required. Which is a very problematic and painful process.
• Because of non-availability of money your project can be delayed or dropped.
• For the success of any project, it’s team members are very important. If in initial phase selected team member are not competent enough, this will impact your project adversely.

Project Life Cycle

As we discussed about project phases from start to end for a project. So, collectively these project phases namely Initial, Planning, Executing, Controlling and Closing, we know as the project life cycle. In a project phase we group the activities based on logics which on completion convert in a project milestone. Like after Initial phase we will be ready with our project charter, which is a very important milestone for the project. During the project life cycle flexibility and difficulties of various parameters like cost & effort, risk, influence, stake involved, stakeholders change with time. This you can by below figure:

So, it is evident from above generic project life cycle figure as project time moves towards end, risk involved and stakeholder influences decreases. While, stake of stake holders involved increases in a project as project progresses. In case of project cost and efforts are in increasing trends from initial to intermediate project phases and subsequently it decreases in the final phase of the project.

Overlapping of Project Phases during Project Life Cycle

You can understand overlapping of project phases during project life cycle by below figure. Here we can see initial and closing phases are for small portion time activities of total project time. While other phase planning, execution and controlling phases are activities which you need to perform throughout the life cycle of a project. Among these three planning activities are higher during the initial part of the projects, while execution phase is on peak at towards end of the project life cycle.

PMO – Project Management Office

Generally, a project manager is responsible to manage a single project at a time. However, in case of small projects he can handle multiple projects also. So, at enterprise level where many numbers of large size projects are running, there you can see an organization to handle these big projects. This organizational structure with specific mandate & having enterprise perspective, we know as a PMO or Project Management Office.

The objective of PMO is to manage major program to achieve business objectives efficiently and economically. PMO control and manage resources (man, machine & material) across all the projects in an optimum way. Moreover, responsible to manage overall risk, opportunities and interdependencies across all the projects.

At enterprise level PMO collects reports from all the project managers working over different projects. Subsequently, PMO consolidates all the reports and presents to the board members. This helps in making decisions to divert and deploy shared resources in projects running behind the schedule.  

Conclusion

In this article we got the introduction about project, project management, project manager and difference between project vs operation. Moreover, we discussed about various project phases and their importance. Subsequently, we saw the relationship of project progress time with various parameter like project cost, risk, influences and stakes involved. We also got introduction about project management offices or PMO.

Thanks for reading…

The post Project Management Fundamentals appeared first on ChemEnggHelp.

So, first let us understand the phase rule for vapour-liquid equilibrium system.

Phase Rule at Equilibrium

So, applying phase rule on a system at equilibrium we can find out number of parameters, which we can change without disturbing the system equilibrium. Let us assume, there is a vapour-liquid system which is at equilibrium. And, this system contains K numbers of components. So, if we take N as number of independent parameters (i.e., which we can change without disturbing the system equilibrium). Then applying phase rule on this system, we get following relationship:

Where, ∅ is the number of phases in the system at equilibrium state.

Therefore, according to phase rule, for a vapour-liquid system with K components we get,

N = K + 2 – ∅= K +2 – 2 = K

In other words, it means the numbers of parameters which we can change without disturbing the equilibrium state of the that system is equal to the number of components K. So, for a binary system N = 2, hence we can consider below parameter combinations, which can be changed independently.

system pressure P – composition x; composition x – system temperature T; mole fraction x – y of low boiling component; composition x – H (enthalpy at constant pressure).

Next, we will discuss some basic terminologies which we use in vapour-liquid equilibrium calculations.

The Relative Volatility

In a liquid mixture, there will be one most volatile component, which has highest vapour pressure at given system temperature. Moreover, this component has lowest boiling point among other mixture components. While, the components which has highest boiling point in the mixture is a less volatile component. And, has lowest vapour pressure at the given system temperature.

Let us denote the relative volatility of the mixture by α. So, we can estimate the relative volatility by the ratio of vapour pressure of pure components A & B at the same temperature. Where, component A is more volatile and B is less volatile.

Where, P_A and P_B are the vapour pressure of pure individual components at the same temperature.

In case of a multicomponent system A – B – C – D having boiling points is ascending order, the relative volatility we can determine as follows:

 So, we can estimate the relative volatility of the component mixture based on vapour pressure of pure components at same temperature. However, there are many situations where when we don’t have relations between the vapour pressure and temperature. In that situation, we can use below equation to calculate the relative volatility.

Where, T_A and T_B are the component boiling points in Kelvin.

Further, we can divide vapor-liquid equilibrium system in two categories. First is ideal system, while second is non-ideal system.

Ideal Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium System

For an ideal vapour-liquid system relative volatility remains constant in the component’s boiling point range. This boiling point range start from the boiling point of most volatile component to the least volatile component. Moreover, for such systems Raoult’s law and ideal gas law is valid. And, the partial pressure of the component A (which is most volatile) we can estimate using following equation:

p_a = x_a*P_A                                                                                 Eq. 01

Where, p_a is partial pressure of component A above liquid mixture, x_a is the molar fraction of component A in the liquid mixture and P_A is the vapour pressure of the pure component A at system temperature.

According to Dalton’s law, at equilibrium state molar concentration of component A in vapour space y_a will be as below:

y_a = p_a/P                                                                  Eq. 02

By eliminating partial pressure p_a of component A, between equation 1 and 2 we get Raoult’s law as below,

y_a = x_a*P_A/P                                                 Eq. 03

For a two-component system we can write below relationship between partial pressures and total pressure,

P = p_a + p_b                                                               Eq. 04

Using equation 1 and x_b = 1 – x_a, we can write below equation,

P = p_a + p_b= x_a*P_A + (1 – x_a)*P_B               Eq. 05

Substituting the value of P from equation 5 to equation 3 we get,

Dividing above equation by P_B and substituting α = P_A/P_B, we get,

Above equation can be rearrange to get the below relationship between the component’s composition at equilibrium state,

Above equation we can use to draw equilibrium distribution curve, which is the basis for distillation column design calculations.

T-x-y, P-x-y and x-y Diagram for Ideal Two Component System

Below are the T-x-y, P-x-y and x-y diagrams for benzene-toluene system at equilibrium condition, which in an ideal system.

In next section, we will discuss about nonideal vapour-liquid equilibrium systems.

Nonideal Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium Systems

We can estimate the properties of mixtures of ideal gases and ideal liquids based on the properties of the pure component mixtures. However, for most of the vapour-liquid equilibrium, ideal system models are not adequate. So, for such systems the Raoult’s law, which is applicable for ideal system, can provide a reference to compare the behaviour of nonideal system with ideal system.

In nonideal vapour-liquid system, mixture’s relative volatility does not remain constant. And, for the systems when relative volatility passes through a value equal to unity is an Azeotropic Systems. In chemical process industries most of the liquid mixtures are nonideal.

Therefore, when designing a distillation column for such systems, deviation from the ideal system is accounted by the activity coefficient. This activity coefficient characterizes the activity of molecules in the mixture and molecular interactions. We can determine the activity coefficient ϒ for components A and B as below. In below equation at low pressures (i.e., up to 1.0 bar) we are considering molecular interaction in vapour phase is not significant. And, the Poynting factor which represents the nonideality of vapour phase is equal to unity (φ = 1.0).    

So, for an ideal system ϒ_a = ϒ_b = 1, while for a nonideal system the value of activity coefficient can be less then or greater than unity. This value depends on the magnitude of molecular attraction. Also, above equation-9, we know as modified Raoult’s law which accommodate the nonideality of the mixtures in liquid phase.

Using modified Raoult’s law, we can estimate the equilibrium distribution of components in nonideal systems. For this we need the activity coefficient of the components involved. And, we can estimate them by using equations suggested by van Laar or Redlich, Kister and Turnquist and derived on the basis of Gibbs – Duhem’s equation.  

Typical Equilibrium Diagrams for Nonideal Binary System

Below are the equilibrium diagrams we can refer to understand, where relative volatility of the mixture not remain constant.

For the special cases when relative volatility of nonideal system is equal to unity, the separation of this liquid mixture is not possible beyond this composition by simple distillation methods. This type of nonideal system is known as azeotropic system. To separate these azeotropic mixture we use special distillation methods such as azeotropic distillation, extractive distillation, pressure swing distillation and molecular sieves.

These azeotropes can be minimum boiling or maximum boiling in nature. And, graphical representation for these is as below for your reference.

Conclusion

In this article we tried to understand about vapour-liquid equilibrium system. We discussed about ideal and nonideal system and derived the relationship between vapour and liquid molar compositions at phase equilibrium condition. We can use these relationships to generate vapour-liquid concentration distribution at equilibrium state.

During calculating vapour-liquid equilibrium we need to pay great attention on estimating the liquid phase activity coefficient. Because, at low pressure and far from critical conditions the density of vapour phase is relatively small in comparison with the liquid phase. Therefore, interaction between molecules is not significant in vapour phase. On the basis of this assumption, we can consider that, system nonideal behaviour is because of nonideality present in the liquid phase only.

This way we can avoid the considerable calculation for vapour phase nonideality. Moreover, when vapour phase follows ideal behaviour, the fugacity is equal to the partial of a given mixture component.

Thanks for reading.

The post Vapour Liquid Equilibrium Systems appeared first on ChemEnggHelp.

So, during preparation for the interview, first you should understand what is the purpose of interview for an organization. In other words, I can say, if you can understand what an interviewer wants, then I think it will be easier to prepare for the interview. Therefore, let’s try to understand the requirements from a interviewers’ eyes.

The objective of an interview process is to hire a right talent for the required job opening. After hiring you will be the part of a system, which will deliver either services or products. You should understand any wrong hiring will impact the output of the system. Which is a loss for an organization in terms of time and money. Sometimes this wrong hiring can be a very serious mistake, mainly at senior levels, where this can impact the organizational strategy adversely. Therefore, right hiring is a very important activity in any organization and to carry out this whole process Human Resource Department is responsible. So, let us start from the first step of this hiring process which we know as a ‘Resume’.

What is the Effective Resume?

In hiring process your resume is the key and an effective resume can make your selection probabilities higher. Importance of resume is critical for experienced candidate than a fresh graduate. There are professionals from recruitment agencies who can prepare a good resume for you on paid basis. Still you should keep in mind below points, which are important during your resume preparation.

• Mention your experience explaining various roles and responsibilities in summary. From when to when and at which role you worked. Write down the key value addition you did during that role and what was impact to the organization.
• Under highlight head you can mention your major achievements during your work experience. This will be explaining the points which shows your core strengths particularly.
• Mention your various certifications and courses you completed.
• Explain your various functional & behavioral competencies. Also mention those projects where you used or exhibited these skills or competencies.
• Mention your areas of interest with reasons & justifications.

Types of interviews

Interview process starts with resume screening; therefore, an impressive resume is the key to clear your first step. When your resume is meeting the requirements of the employer then your hiring process starts. You will get a call from the concerned HR department or recruitment agent to fix a telephonic interview.

Telephonic Interview

After your resume screening you will get a call for telephonic interview. This call is important for your next level of screening. You should understand the purpose of telephonic interview is to verify your details, which you have mentioned in your resume. During the call interviewer will ask mostly about your functional skills which are required for the applied job. Therefore, you should carefully prepare your resume to align it with that functional requirement. You may be asked about some of your projects where you have used your technical skills. Also, you will be asked about willingness to relocate yourself to new location, about notice period and expected CTC. So, prepare your answers properly to clear your telephonic interview. During throughout your interview be calm and speak slowly and clearly.

Face to Face

When you are through with your telephonic interview then it is the time for face to face interview. Face to face interview will be in more detail where you will be evaluated for behavioral aspects and as well as for technical part also. When we talk about behavioral part is means to deal with the people in the organization and outside the organization as well. When you are in an organization, you will be interacting with your seniors, peers and subordinates to perform your responsibilities. So, interviewer will evaluate your competencies to see your abilities for effective dealing among team members. Therefore, it is better to refresh the basics of good team member and an impressive leader.  You will find face to face interview can be of two type as below.

One on one Interview

In this category you will be dealing with one interviewer at a time. In other words, first you will have interview with functional head. Here he will assess your technical and behavioral competencies which he thinks are important for the required position. Here your reporting manager also will take your interview. When your functional interview completes, next you will be in front of the HR person. He will interview to assess your cultural alignment with the organization. He will also discuss your CTC and joining dates. Sometimes you can get the offer letter same day or you will be asked to inform later.

Panel Interview

In a panel interview a group of individuals from the company will be there and that group will conduct interview with you. In panel interview you will be facing peers, managers, supervisors and other senior level individuals. This way a panel interview is an easy and quick method to know about you. Also, a panel interview will save the time and money for the organization. Moreover, in panel interview you will be assessed on many other points which are note possible in one on one type interview. These points can be like, how do you interact with different types of personalities? What is your communication style? And how do you handle the pressure of different questions? The panel interviews are often used for hiring of very senior level executives where consensus of several top-level individuals is required.

How to Prepare for Interview?

Now we come to discuss how to prepare for the probable questions during the interview. In any interview generally your assessment is done in below three areas:

Functional or Technical

In this interviewer will question you to gaze your technical competence. He will be asking questions related to fundamentals of your subjects. For example, if you are a chemical engineer, then question can be on the basics. Such as your knowledge about process equipment, like distillation process, heat exchanger designing, centrifugal pumps, types of reactors, etc. However, functional question depends on your experience. For fresh candidate it will be more technical, while an experienced candidate will face question based on his various project work. Like how you designed that plant? How you used your technical skills to innovate the things? What was the performance of your project? Any challenge, which you faced during the project execution?

Behavioral

This part of interview is to assess your personality and people management competencies. Your assessment will include what is your communication style? Is it aggressive, assertive or negative? How do you take the challenges, with positive attitude or negative attitude? Moreover, your body language will be assessed, so be careful your words should align with your facial expression and physical postures. How do you dress and present yourself in front of the interviewer is also very important? On the other aspect of behavioral interview includes the traits to deal with seniors, peers and subordinates. Your assessment will be to check whether you are a good team member or not? Whether you have good leadership qualities or not?

Cultural aspect

In this area interviewer will check your alignment with companies’ culture. This is more relevant for the experienced candidates, however in case of fresher also this has good weightage. When we talk about culture it includes like, various benefits, perks and workplace bonuses. Onsite gym and health consciousness, free food in office, flexible work schedule, remote work opportunities, etc. Moreover, type of reporting structure, hierarchy, communication protocols, gender biasness, robust or customized business processes, etc. In nut shell it is more concerned with the employee engagement ways. Different organizations have different work culture so during interview your alignment is assessed with organization’s work culture.  

STAR Model

For your interview you should prepare question using STAR model, which is a structured approach to explain your work. STAR is the abbreviation of Situations, Tasks, Actions and Results as explained below:

• Situations – So you explain what was happening at that time? Where you applied your skills, it can be technical or behavioral depending on the question. A situation for example can be, team moral was low, things were moving at slow pace.
• Tasks – At that time what were the requirements? Explain what were the challenges in that situation? For above situation it can be, my responsibility was to move the project at fast pace and enhance the team moral also.
• Actions – Explain specifically what you did in that situation or project? For our example actions can be like, I discussed with all the team members one on one to find out the causes for low motivation. Then I prepared a comprehensive plan, which I discussed with all team members. After discussions I accommodated their inputs and circulated the MOM with all team members for the implementation in time bound manner.
• Results – In this you need to tell the outcome of your work. For our example, results can be my team moral was high and they were motivated. I able to complete the project within time and capex.

So, you should try to explain your achievements in STAR model during the interview. This will help the interviewer to understand your skills and competencies.

We can define Skills as the learned abilities that you need to perform a given job well. While when we talk about Competencies, on the other hand, are the person’s knowledge and behaviors that lead them to be successful in a project or work profile.

Reasons for Rejection

Almost all of us have experienced rejections after interviews. For the rejections there can be various reasons as below:

• Our experience background is not fulfilling the requirement of applied position.
• Functional competencies are not matching with the job requirement.
• Behavioral competencies are not suitable for team work or leadership profile requirements.
• Interviewer biasness is also a big factor many times. There can be biasness from various angles, like regional, religion, cast, language, etc.   
• Other candidate can have recommendation from influential person or can have relationship with interviewer.
• Your salary can be a factor, if you ask for higher salary and next candidate is ok with the provided salary structure. Your rejection is possible.
• Sometimes organizations conduct interviews for new upcoming projects and suddenly that project is on hold. You will receive a mail from their HR writing, “Sorry to inform you, presently this position is not available so we may consider your profile in future.”
• In many job requirements, your physical fitness is very important or during interview if interviewer find you are not fit, you will see a rejection.

Conclusion

In this article we discussed about what an effective resume should include. What are the types of interviews which are common in practice? Moreover, we discussed which type of questions will be asked and how to prepare for question? How to use the STAR model to answer a question effectively. I think this article should help the candidates to understand the whole hiring process. Which starts from your resume and finally close with the offer letter. Between these two end points there are numbers of activities. Finally, we also discussed the probable reasons for rejection after the interview.

Thanks for reading and looking forward for your questions and feedbacks to improve this further.

The post Interview and Hiring Process in Organizations appeared first on ChemEnggHelp.

Major advantage of a batch distillation column over continuous distillation column is its operational flexibilities. In other words, by using single column we can distill different mixtures. Moreover, we can distill different quality & purity products from a single column only. Which is not possible in a continuous distillation column, where we operate at a fixed feed condition and for fixed product quality. As well as, in a continuous distillation column to separate N-components mixture in it’s purest form you require N + 1 distillation columns in series.

Various Parts of a Batch Distillation Column System

To understand a batch distillation column system, you can refer to below figure. The main parts includes batch kettle, batch column, batch column reboiler, batch column condenser, reflux vessel, product cut and intercut collection vessels and reflux pumps.

Batch Kettle

We charge the crude product mix or a solvent mixture in this, which we wish to separate. This is a cylindrical horizontal vessel having dished ends, sometimes it is vertical also. Material of construction and thickness of this vessel depends on chemicals we are handling and the operating conditions, such as pressure and temperature. To ensure safe operation we should provide a safety valve on this vessel. Moreover, proper insulation is important to eliminate heat loss from the large surface area of the kettle. At bottom, there are nozzles for hot liquid inlet and cold liquid outlet, which are connected with the reboiler. In many installations we can see for kettle heating u-tube bundle is installed inside the kettle itself. However, for minimum liquid leftover and uniform heating external reboiler is a better option. This we can understand from below figure.

Batch Column

Vapor from batch kettle goes into the column, this column is mounted directly on the kettle itself. You can also find the separate installation for the column, where column and batch kettle are connected with piping for liquid and vapor traffic. Inside column there can be trays, structured packing, random packing or combination of these (i.e., trays + packing). Mechanical design of column can be either in single piece or segmented. Segmented design of column requires plant structure or support structure for the access of column body flange bolts tightening. Columns having large diameters and for high pressure operating condition should be designed in a single piece. This will avoid the column leakage possibilities in the absence of the body flanges. Moreover, lower column fixed cost, as cost of large diameter body flanges & gaskets is too high.

Batch Column Reboiler

As we discussed earlier also that, for heating of batch kettle we can have u-tube bundle installed inside the kettle or provision of external reboiler. In case of internal u-tube bundle left over at the end of the batch is higher comparatively. Moreover, heating area also reduces when liquid level comes down below the u-tube bundle height. In this case because bundle is not submerged in the liquid pool, therefore overheating of upper side tubes faces frequent fouling/scaling problems.

In contrast with external reboiler we don’t face such type of issues. Reboiler tubes always remain submerged in liquid. And, provides almost constant heat supply to kettle mass throughout the batch . However, fixed cost is higher for this option, as cost of reboiler is higher than a U-Tube bundle.

Batch column reboiler can be of two type, first forced circulation and second natural thermosyphon. Wherever distillation kettle liquid is very viscous and very fouling in nature, it is better to go with forced circulation reboiler. As this will provide higher operating hours before the cleaning requirements. This is because high tube velocity will avoid scaling on tubes and will support high heat transfer coefficient in comparison with natural thermosyphon reboilers.

Batch Column Condenser

 We can install condenser directly on top of the column or outside of the column for condensation of vapor. This is a shell and tube type heat exchanger. As you can see in below schematic diagram for reference.

Among above options, first option we find is most common in industries. While other two options are good for the compounds which solidify at sub-cooling. In such cases, this type of condenser installation ensure the condensation at saturation temperature. Which avoids the sub-cooling of the condensate. We draw the product from liquid collection tray, while excess liquid overflows as reflux into the column. 

Reflux Vessel

In batch distillation column we can provide reflux by gravity providing overhead condenser or by reflux pump. Using reflux vessel & pump gives us better control for reflux controlling. Simultaneously we can afford to install condenser at lower elevation also, which save power cost of cooling water pumping.

Precut, Intercut and Pure Cut Collection Vessels

As this is the batch distillation column setup and during distillation, we need to analyze samples. Therefore, till the sample analysis is confirming the requirement we need to hold the material before transferring it to respective tanks. Generally, in all batch distillation we generate precut collection which comes first. After this intercut comes which we collect into intercut vessel. And, finally pure cut comes which goes into the pure cut vessel. Subsequently these different cuts transferred into their respective tanks. This transfer into the tanks we do after confirming lab analysis results. If any cut goes beyond specification, we recycle it back into the batch distillation charging tank. Which we charge again in next batch distillation cycle. However this reprocessing is the additional cost for product manufacturing, which we must avoid.

Batch Distillation Operation Philosophy

In distillation process top temperature is the proxy variable for purity of various components in kettle mixture. For example, let us assume a mixture contains low boiler, component ‘A’, component ‘B’ and heavy boilers. During distillation process, we can draw a line plot between column top temperature and product draw something like in Figure 4.0. 

In starting of batch, we distill pre-cut which contains mostly low boilers and traces of ‘A’. The temperature keeps on increasing till we achieve the saturation temperature of pure ‘A’. During draw of component ‘A’ temperature remains constant. After distilling off component ‘A’ again top temperature start increase till we achieve the saturation temperature of pure component ‘B’. Till the purity of component ‘B’ is achieved we collect the inter cut, which is the mixture of ‘A‘ & ‘B‘. After recovery of component ‘B’, remaining bottom heavies with traces of component ‘B‘ is transferred into residue tank.

The batch distillation is also known by Rectification or Fractionation. During distillation we keep reflux constant while a particular cut or faction is distilled off (within a given temperature range). For the component’s mixture having closed boiling points during fractionation, reflux ratio is usually increasing to achieve desired distillated quality. 

You will find batch columns either operating in TR / TP mode or continuous reflux mode. TR / TP stands for Total Reflux and Total Product. For example if your required reflux is 1 : 10 than you column will be running 10 minutes at TR (i.e., no distillate draw) and for 1 minutes will run at TP (i.e., no reflux only product draw). For the control of this sequence, we use a timer switch. Which operates a tree-way on-off solenoid operated valve. In case of continuous reflux mode, top temperature is in cascade with the reflux flow control valve. In this mode reflux flow and distillate flow control operate simultaneously.

Batch Distillation Column Process & Controls

As you can see Figure 1.0, shows a typical batch distillation column setup. To run a batch distillation column, first we charge the known quantity of mixture into the batch kettle. We collect the sample of this kettle charge to know the composition of various components. After this sequence of steps in process operation are as below:

1. Close the vent of batch kettle, line up the cooling water in condenser and chilled water in vent condenser.
2. If this is under vacuum operation line up the vacuum ejector or vacuum pump and apply desired vacuum. Drain the steam condensate from reboiler and start heating of batch kettle charge.
3. Heating should be at slow rate to avoid any hammering in batch kettle. Keep the column at total reflux mode. Or in other words, we close the reflux vessel level control valve in starting.
4. When boil up starts vapor goes into the condenser and after condensation goes into the reflux vessel. When there is 50% level in reflux vessel line up the reflux pump and start refluxing. Put the reboiler steam and reflux flow rate in auto mode (i.e., enter setpoint values as per SOP in DCS controller).
5. When column temperature profile is stable start withdrawing precut by opening reflux pot level control valve. Put the reflux pot level control valve into auto mode. And, enter 50% setpoint in reflux pot level controller.
6. When temperature of component ‘A‘ is reached as shown in Figure 2.0 stop precut draw and check the sample. During this period column will be running at total reflux. If sample analysis is confirming the requirement, start drawing pure component ‘A‘ in pure cut vessel.
7. During withdrawing pure component, all the control valves (i.e., steam flow, reflux flow and reflux pot level control valves) will be in auto mode. Reflux control should be in cascade control with column top temperature to ensure component purity. In this process component ‘A‘ concentration will deplete continuously in kettle charge and component ‘B‘ will start lifting with first component. Therefore, reflux will also continuously increase to maintain the purity of first component. After collection of the components ‘A‘ stop draw in pure cut vessel and line up draw into the intercut vessel.
8. Again, repeat the step 6 and 7 for component ‘B‘ fractionation. After completion of second component distillation, stop heating to the reboiler. And, finally we transfer the bottom mass into residue tank through a cooler.

Process Design Considerations

Batch column design depends on batch cycle time for the complete distillation process. Batch cycle time includes time required in all the steps, from kettle charging to leftover transfer. During batch distillation, components having close boiling points are difficult to separate and require higher reflux ratio in given column. This leads to high collection time & increases the overall batch cycle time. During design we need to optimize column diameter and column height to minimize the batch cycle time. In other words, this is the optimization between fixed cost v/s variable cost.

Process design for column diameter & stages depends on that fraction collection step, which has highest liquid and vapor loading. Simultaneous we estimate the area of reboiler and condenser accordingly. For the reboiler design pressure must be based on the end of batch temperature & pressure conditions. Because at the end of batch, kettle temperature will be highest, therefore in case of steam in reboiler saturation steam pressure will be highest. Similarly, for condenser log mean temperature difference (LMTD) will be lowest in starting and highest in end of the batch. So, keeping this LMTD effect in mind condenser sizing should be done.

In nut shell we can say column diameter & height estimation, reboiler & condenser sizing must be designed based on highest process requirements. Otherwise it will increase the distillation batch cycle time.

Conclusion

You can see batch distillation process is dynamic in nature in contrast to continuous distillation process. Continuous distillation is a steady state process and has strict controls. In batch distillation process operating parameters keeps on changing as distillation progress forward. This is because batch kettle composition is changing continuously. Therefore, a dynamic modeling of the batch distillation will be very helpful in optimizing the process. This modeling can help you to minimize the batch cycle time. Which will increase the plant productivity and reduce energy cost also.

Digital transformation and real time data analytics will give insight in the process. Which will minimize the batch to batch variations in batch cycle time. Predictive analysis can reduce the sample analysis requirement, which is the cause of productivity loss because of waiting time for analysis. Moreover, will avoid the sample analysis cost also. In many cases where batches fail during distillation, machine learning models can derive artificial intelligence for prediction in advance. This way AI (artificial intelligence) can help to prevent the batch failure, which can avoid huge revenue loss to the business.

 Thanks for reading and looking forward for your comments.

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